1

Birth 1907

The beginning of the twentieth century was a time of optimism and progress. Technology had produced such wonders as the automobile, airplane, skyscraper, cinema, and telegraph. The world was on the move and transatlantic transport of passengers, cargo, and mail was brisk and competitive. Ocean liners, the predecessors of our modern day jumbo jets, became ever faster, larger, and more luxurious to accommodate this traffic.

At a dinner party in the summer of 1907, J. Bruce Ismay, chairman of the White Star Line, and Lord James Pirrie, a partner in the Belfast shipbuilding firm of Harland and Wolff, conceived a plan to dominate passenger travel on the North Atlantic. They planned to construct three ships, the largest and most luxurious ever built. Work on two ships was to start immediately. They would be called Olympic and Titanic.

2

Design

Titanic and her sister ships were designed in the Drawing Office at Harland and Wolff. Here, Managing Director Thomas Andrews, Jr. supervised the work of an army of drafters, tracers, tabulators, and blueprint makers as they produced thousands of drawings. In designing these ships, Andrews directed his department to strike a delicate balance between strength and beauty. As the largest Ship ever built, Titanic had to be sturdy enough to navigate the North Atlantic’s rough seas. Along with strength, however, Titanic’s claim as the finest Ship ever built meant that she had to surpass even its wealthiest passengers’ expectations of opulence.

3

Construction

Titanic took shape under the world’s largest gantry at Harland and Wolff’s Queens Island shipyard. More than 15,000 men worked over two years to construct the Ship’s hull and internal structure. The hull literally grew up from the ground; first the keel and bottom plates were laid, then the ribs and internal girders and, finally, the exterior steel plates.
Overhead cranes maneuvered many of the huge steel slabs into place, and over three million rivets
secured them together. Harland and Wolff mainly employed new hydraulic riveting methods, but still used an older, hand hammering technique for sections of the Ship that were difficult to reach. Crews used steel rivets when working with the hydraulic riveter, and more malleable iron rivets when hammering by hand. This difference in materials may have made some rivets weaker than others.
Titanic’s innovative design included a system of 15 watertight bulkheads and remote controlled doors to contain flooding in the event of a breach in the hull. This watertight system led some commentators to declare that the Ship was “practically unsinkable.”

4

Rivets
Due to the vast number of rivets used in her construction, Titanic’s builders adopted the new technique of hydraulic riveting. Hard-to-reach areas, however, still needed to be riveted by hand-hammering. Hand-riveting teams consisted of three men and a boy. Working inside the Ship, one man and a boy heated rivets and held them in place. The remaining two individuals worked outside the hull striking the hot rivets with heavy hammers to secure them in place.

5

Mr. Thomas Andrews, First Class
Managing Director of Design, Harland & Wolff

Still a young man of 36, Andrews, a Belfast native, had already earned a reputation as a genius due to his innovative and brilliant ship designs. Overseeing dozens of draftsmen, Andrews was ultimately responsible for the thousands of plans that became Titanic. His design stressed both progress and continuity: incorporating newer technologies while including proven equipment to support them. A perfect example of this approach was Titanic’s triple–screw propulsion system: the Ship’s center propeller was powered by relatively new turbine technology, while its two outer propellers were turned by the giant pistons of reciprocating engines.
Even while at sea, Andrews took constant notes about the minor and major improvements that Titanic needed. Surprisingly, Andrews had been asked at the last minute to travel on Titanic because Harland and Wolff’s managing director, Lord William J. Pirrie, had taken ill.

6

Fitting Out

Following her launch, Titanic was still an empty shell. For the next ten months, over 3,000 carpenters, engineers, electricians, plumbers, painters, master mechanics, —interior designers —craftsmen of every discipline—toiled to fit the Titanic with latest marine technology and the most sumptuous fixtures and furniture. The Ship’s funnels were put in place, as well as much of her machinery and all of her fine appointments.

The Shipbuilder magazine trumpeted their success: “The builders of the Olympic and Titanic, the celebrated firm of Harland & Wolff, Limited, have had unrivalled experience in the construction of large passenger vessels, and the new White Star liners, but add another triumph to the many which they have to their credit.”

During her outfitting, Titanic’s owners reduced the Ship’s 32 Lifeboats to 16—the amount required by British law. Although 4 additional collapsible canvas lifeboats were also added, White Star Line’s decision only provided a means of escape for about half of the Ship’s total capacity.

7

Launch Day-1911
On May 31, 1911, a crowd of more than 100,000 gathered to watch Titanic’s launch. At 12:13 PM, a red rocket streaked into the sky and the hydraulic triggers holding the Ship in its dry dock were released. The sliding way beneath the Ship—greased with 22 tons of tallow and soap—offered no resistance as Titanic glided gracefully into the River Lagan amid the sounds of nearby ship sirens and a general murmur of wonder that rose up from the spectators on both sides of the river.

Although she was now in the water, Titanic was far from complete: the interior was not finished,
and the Ship’s engines, boilers, propellers, and four funnels awaited installation. Finishing Titanic would take another ten months.

8

Captain Edward Smith
Captain, Titanic

From his humble origins as a potter’s son, Smith, 64, had steadily climbed the ranks within White Star Line and had become commodore of the White Star Fleet in 1904. By 1908, company tradition called for Smith to command White Star Line’s newest ships on their maiden voyages. Charismatic and quietly flamboyan flamboyant, Smith captured the hearts of countless travelers; in fact, many White Star Line passengers only sailed on ships commanded by Smith. Captain Smith was planning to retire in 1911, but White Star Line convinced him to stay in order to oversee Titanic’s first transatlantic crossing. Smith promised his wife, Eleanor, and daughter, Helen, that he would retire after Titanic’s much anticipated first voyage.

9

Departure
On Wednesday, April 10, 1912, an air of excitement spread along the docks in Southampton, England. Titanic’s crew began to board the Ship and take up their stations in the early morning. Many second−class and third−class passengers arrived on the train from London at 9:30 AM. Most first−class passengers arrived in more leisurely fashion aboard the 11:30 train and were greeted with celebratory music played by the Ship’s orchestra. Moments before noon, Titanic sounded her whistles, slipped her mooring lines, and began her maiden voyage with Captain Edward J. Smith at the helm. After stops to collect additional passengers and mail in Cherbourg, France, and Queenstown, Ireland, the Ship struck out across the North Atlantic for New York.

10

The Verandah Café
The Verandah Café was located on A Deck just behind the First Class Smoking Room. The Café featured bronze-framed, arched windows that were nearly seven feet tall, allowing large amounts of light to filter into the room and creating an outdoor patio effect. Palm trees stood in front of the windows, and the area was sometimes referred to by passengers as the Palm Court. The furniture was made of white wicker, with groups of four chairs clustered about a single round table. Children of first-class passengers were often seen using the Café as a play area, scurrying about on the checkered floor. Green trellises adorned the walls and, in conjunction with the climbing plants that crept along the interwoven wood, gave the area the feeling of life in an English country manor.

11

Class Distinction

When Titanic set sail, the Western world was filled with a spirit of progress and blind faith in technology. People began migrating to America as a response to explosive growth and great social tensions. The Edwardian culture was one of great class separation and Titanic followed suit.

First Class included such famous names as Astor, Guggenheim, Widener, and Straus. Each of these men was a leader in industry
and among the wealthiest of his time. Accustomed to only the finest accommodations, Titanic’s first-class passengers enjoyed luxurious staterooms, parlor suites, lounges, and dining areas. Titanic also offered her first-class passengers Turkish baths, a squash court, a gymnasium, a swimming pool, and three elevators.

Even though Titanic’s second-class passengers did not enjoy the amenities of First Class, they were able to enjoy well-appointed staterooms and dining areas, a well-stocked library, and other exquisite surroundings. Passengers who booked passage in Second Class included successful businessmen, members of the clergy,
a teacher, and a chauffeur.

Third Class—or “steerage” as it was often called—enjoyed accommodations that could only be described as simple. Titanic’s
owners knew, however, that if they were going to be profitable on their transatlantic routes, they had to cater to those traveling in Third Class. Therefore, Titanic’s third-class accommodations provided much greater comfort than other passenger liners.

John Jacob Astor IV, First Class
Industrialist, Builder
John Jacob Astor IV, 47, managed his family’s fortune from his home on Fifth Avenue in New York City. A dabbler in the realms of art and invention, Astor wrote a semi-scientific novel, helped to develop the turbine engine, and was part owner of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. In 1898, he was named lieutenant-colonel in the U.S. Army volunteers after outfitting a mountain battery and offering the assistance of his yacht to help fight the Spanish-American War.

In 1911, following a divorce from his first wife, Astor married 18-year-old Madeleine Force. The newlyweds went to Europe in order to let the gossip die down at home but, upon learning that Madeleine was pregnant, decided to return to America as first-class passengers on Titanic.

Sir Cosmo Edmund and Lady Duff-Gordon, First Class
Nobleman and Fashion Designer
Cosmo Duff-Gordon, 49, was the fifth baron of his family estate. In addition to his great wealth and many investments, Duff-Gordon was also a proficient fencer; he represented Great Britain at the 1908 Olympics. In 1900, Duff-Gordon married Lucy Wallace, a famous fashion designer with several boutiques in Europe and America. Cosmo and Lucy spent very little time together because of Lucy’s busy travel schedule, but because of urgent business in April 1912, both were obliged to sail to America on Titanic. As was their custom, Lady Duff-Gordon took a separate stateroom; she wrote in her journal that all of Titanic’s modern conveniences made her feel completely at ease.

Isidor and Ida Straus, First Class
Businessman, Homemaker
Isidor Straus, 67, immigrated to America as a child with his family from Germany in 1854. Following the Civil War Straus moved to New York and helped organize a new family earthenware business, L. Straus & Son. Business flourished, and soon Isidor became involved in the R.H. Macy & Company department store, running the store’s china and glassware department along with his brother, Nathan. By 1888 Isidor and his brother were co-owners of Macy’s, which they moved in 1902 from its 14th Street location to a much larger building at 34th Street and Broadway—making it the first large store located north of 23rd Street in the city.
Following a trip to Germany with their granddaughter Beatrice, Straus and his wife, Ida, 63, booked first-class passage on board Titanic. They were accompanied by Isidor’s manservant John Farthing and Ida’s maid, Ellen Bird.

12

First Class Dining
With its warm walnut paneling, sumptuous fabrics, brass and gilded candle lamps, and luxurious carpeting A la Carte Restaurant may well have been the loveliest room on the ship. Gold rimmed Spode china in a sophisticated cobalt blue adorned the tables The monogram OSNC in the center of the plates stood for Oceanic Steam Navigation Company, the corporate entity of the White Star Line.

Wicker furniture, ivy covered walls and arched windows with sweeping views of the sea, made the sun-lit Verandah Cafe a pleasant and relaxing spot. Actually, there were two such rooms — the Verandah Cafe and Palm Court — on either side of the ship just aft of the Smoking Room. The parents of first-class met there to visit, while their children played games on the checkerboard floor.

The more formal dining saloon, furnished in the Jacobean English style, was the largest room afloat. It could accommodate 532 diners feasting on meals of eleven sumptuous courses — accompanied, of course, by the appropriate wines. Fresh flowers scented the air and glittering cut crystal and silver graced the tables set upon an intricate floor design fashioned from separate linoleum pieces.

Mrs. Margaret Brown, First Class
Women’s Suffragist and Human Rights Organizer Although she was married to one of the wealthiest miners in the United States, Margaret Brown never forgot her roots. The daughter of Irish immigrants, Mrs. Brown worked tirelessly for her two greatest causes: literacy and women’s rights. Margaret and her daughter Helen, who was a student at the Sorbonne, had been traveling throughout Europe and had met the John Jacob Astor party in Egypt when Margaret received word that her first grandchild was ill. She decided to leave for New York immediately and booked passage on the earliest ship: Titanic. Due to her quick decision, very few people, including most of her family, knew that Margaret was on board Titanic.

Benjamin Guggenheim, First Class
Industrialist
Benjamin Guggenheim, 46, was the son of the wealthy mining magnate Meyer Guggenheim. Benjamin, the fifth of Meyer’s seven sons, was sent to Colorado at the age of 20 to take charge of his father’s mining interests there. While there Benjamin realized the the possibilities that lay in the smelting business, and soon after he opened the family’s first smelting plant in Pueblo. The business was a huge success, and soon the family had become the major player in the American smelting industry. Guggenheim married Florette Seligman in 1894—together they had three daughters, Barbara, Benita, and Marguerite, known as “Peggy.” But over time the romance between Benjamin and Florette waned, and Benjamin began spending less and less time at the couples’ New York City home.

Guggenheim was returning from a trip to Europe when he boarded Titanic at Cherbourg. Accompanying him was his valet, Victor Giglio, and his French mistress, singer Léontine Aubart.

13

First Class Cabin
Titanic could accommodate over 750 first-class passengers. All first-class cabins were exceptionally large, offering fine materials and craftsmanship to rival the world’s finest hotels. Abundant closet-space, private baths with full bathtubs, and hot and cold running water were standard. Many first-class staterooms also featured adjoining parlor rooms while the two most luxurious of these suites, located on B Deck, included private promenades. The average cost of a first-class ticket on Titanic to New York varied considerably but was often in excess of $2500 (approximately $43860 today). The two most luxurious suites on B-Deck, however, were a staggering $4500 (approximately $78,950 today). Although Titanic’s first-class passengers were granted access to all of the ship’s facilities, certain extras were not free of charge. The Turkish bath, gymnasium, and squash court all required an additional fee for use.

14

First Class Smoking Room

Located on the Promenade Deck, the First Class Smoking Room was intended for the exclusive use of first-class male passengers. It featured carved mahogany paneling, mother-of-pearl inlay, stained glass windows, and a well-stocked bar. In addition, the windows were painted with scenes depicting White Star Line’s greatest ships sailing into some of the world’s most exotic ports. The central feature of this room was a large, ornate fireplace around which first-class male passengers would gather after dinner to enjoy cigars, cognac, and conversation. Revolving doors led aft from the Smoking Room to the open-air Verandah Café and Palm Court where the décor changed into that of an English manor and opened onto a commanding view of the Atlantic Ocean.

15

Grand Staircase

The crowning feature of the Titanic’s interior, was without a doubt, its forward Grand Staircase. Entering it from an afternoon stroll on the deck, one would notice how the natural light, streaming through the wrought iron and glass dome overhead, reflected off the polished oak of the wall paneling and the gilt of the elaborate balustrades. On the uppermost landing, a large carved panel contained a clock surrounded by two classical figures symbolizing Honor and Glory crowning Time. When dressed for dinner, passengers could walk down to the dining saloon on D-deck, or take the elevators located just forward of the staircase. On each landing of the staircase, spacious entrance halls were lit by gold plated light fixtures and had cozy seating areas. Survivors recall admiring the oil paintings that decorated the landings of Titanic’s staircases. On D-deck the staircase led into the white paneled reception room which adjoined the dining saloon.

16

Turkish Baths

One of the most opulent areas onboard Titanic was the Turkish Baths, which were for the exclusive use of first-class passengers. Located on the starboard side of F Deck, the Baths were comprised of steam, hot, temperate, and cooling rooms as well as a shampoo room. Much effort was put into making the Turkish Baths as “exotic” looking as possible—“eastern” touches included an elaborately carved Cairo curtain that covered the portholes, and bronze Arab-style lamps that hung from the blue and green tiled wall panels. Use of Titanic’s Turkish Baths was not free—tickets could be purchased from the Ship’s enquiry office for four British shillings, or one US dollar, per person.

17

The Promenade Deck

The Promenade Deck, or A Deck, was dedicated solely to the enjoyment of first-class passengers. Several first-class cabins were located on this deck along with Titanic’s most elegant common rooms, including the Reading Room, Smoking Room, Verandah Café, and the First Class Lounge.
The principal feature of this deck, however, was its promenade, which extended for 500 feet on either side of the Ship. Here, first-class passengers could sit in deck chairs or take a gentle stroll while enjoying sweeping vistas of the sea and mingling with their fellow passengers. The Promenade Deck’s long expanse was a favorite of first-class children as well; they were often seen playing in the open air or racing from one end of the Ship to the other.

18

Gymnasium

Titanic offered a well-equipped gymnasium for the use of her first-class passengers. The gymnasium featured two rowing machines, a bicycle-racing machine, a horse-riding machine, and even a trunk-rotating machine (also called an electric camel). Back- and stomach-massaging machines were also available, and racquet enthusiasts could pay $1.00 per half hour to enjoy the squash court. Those seeking aquatic exercise could swim several laps in the Ship’s pool. Following a workout, passengers often soothed their muscles in the Turkish Bath amidst the Moroccan tile and Egyptian lace that covered the walls and windows. The fitness facilities were open each day from 10 a.m. to 6p.m. for ladies and men—children were allowed in the gymnasium from 1:00 p.m. to 3:00 p.m.

19

Second Class Amenities

Titanic’s second-class cabins were comparable to first-class cabins on many other ocean liners of the era, and cost nearly as much. Each cabin featured mahogany furniture, enameled white wood- work, and linoleum tile, and each was designed to receive natural light throughout the day. The beds themselves were made of mahogany and wider than those of rival ocean liners.

Second-class passengers also enjoyed numerous facilities only found in First Class on other ships, including an elevator, a library, a reading room, and a spacious promenade on the Boat Deck.

The Ship’s oak-paneled Second Class Dining Saloon, located on the Saloon Deck, could accommodate only 394 passengers at a time. For this reason, meals in the seventeenth-century-styled room were served in sittings. Though only 71-feet long, the Saloon extended the full width of the Ship, allowing for two large walls of windows. The room also featured an elaborately carved buffet with a piano in the center. At the first luncheon, many second-class passengers thought they had accidentally been seated in the First Class Saloon when they saw the fine appointments around them.

Because the first- and second-class galleys were combined, Titanic’s second-class passengers ate nearly as well as their counterparts in First Class, enjoying such delicacies as spring lamb with mint sauce and plum pudding.

Dorothy Gibson, First Class
Actress, Model

Dorothy Gibson, 22, was a New York model and a popular silent film actress. From 1907 to 1911 Gibson was a singer and dancer in numerous Broadway productions. In 1909 she branched out into modeling, becoming a favorite model for the illustrator Harrison Fisher—soon her image appeared on numerous magazine covers, postcards, and other merchandise. She also began to appear in bit parts in silent films—in 1911 the French-based Éclair Film Company made her one of their leading ladies, casting her in such films as “Hands Across the Sea” in which she portrayed the Revolutionary War heroine Molly Pitcher.

After completing a number of films for Éclair in their Fort Lee, New Jersey studios, Dorothy and her mother, Pauline, went to Europe for vacation. They decided to return to the U.S. a month later, booking first-class passage on Titanic.

Mr. Frederick Fleet, Crew Lookout
Born in Liverpool in 1887, Mr. Fleet practically grew up at sea. He never knew his father, and his mother abandoned him. At the age of 12 he was sent to a training ship, where he stayed until he was 16.
In 1903, he went to sea as a deck boy and worked his way up to Able Bodied Seaman.

Fleet was scheduled for lookout duty on Titanic’s 10 to 12 watch the night of April 14, 1912. He received repeated instructions from his commanding officers that he and his fellow lookout Reginald Lee must keep very alert because the Ship was in the vicinity of icebergs. The moonless conditions and calm sea made sighting icebergs more difficult than normal; icebergs were usually located at night by their reflection in the moonlight or by waves crashing against them. Shivering with cold, Fleet and Lee stared into the blackness as a slight haze began to develop across the horizon.

Father Thomas R. Byles, Second Class Roman Catholic Priest
The eldest of seven children, Thomas Byles, 42, was raised in a Protestant family known for its social consciousness. After converting to Catholicism while at school in Oxford, England, Byles went to Rome where he was ordained in 1902. Father Byles’ younger brother William also converted to Catholicism but moved to America and fell in love with a woman in New York. Byles was en route to America to officiate at his brother’s wedding, which was planned for the Sunday after his arrival. Initially scheduled to travel on another White Star liner, Byles switched to Titanic at the last minute.

In a letter he mailed from Cherbourg to his housekeeper, Byles commented on the size of the tenders bringing passengers from the French shore:
“The tender is good sized, but by the side of Titanic she looks as though
we could lay her on deck without feeling any inconvenience.”

20

Third Class Passengers

Third-class passengers traveling on Titanic were mostly European immigrants looking for a better life in America. Some had already established themselves in the United States and were returning after visits home. Others were joining family members who had traveled ahead of them and had sent money for their journey. Some passengers may have been able to afford a second-class ticket but wanted to save money for their arrival in America.

A third-class ticket on Titanic to New York cost $40 (about $900 today), which was a far cry from the $4,500 price of a first-class luxury suite (around $103,000 today). A third-class cabin would likely be occupied by up to four strangers who spoke different languages.

Cabins were cramped and very plain in design. The ceilings were covered with a tangle of pipes and support beams, and the noise and vibration of the engines could always be heard and felt. Despite these conditions, many third-class passengers found their accommodations to be more than adequate. Unlike other liners,
which used straw, Titanic’s bunks had real mattresses. The Ship also featured open-air deck space on the Poop Deck, which many rival liners lacked. The bathrooms were also an improvement for many who had never used indoor plumbing. Titanic’s two bathtubs for its 700 third-class passengers would not suffice today, but were manageable in the time of the once-a-week bath.

21

Coal

In the months leading up to Titanic’s maiden voyage a miner’s strike greatly reduced the available supplies of coal, threatening to push back the Ship’s departure date of April 10, 1912. Though the strike ended on April 6, not enough time was left to get coal to Southampton, and White Star Line was obliged to take coal meant for the company’s other ships—including leftover coal from Olympic—and transfer it to Titanic. The Ship eventually left with 5,892 tons of coal—about 89% of capacity—enough to propel Titanic to New York.

The Ship’s 159 furnaces consumed up to 850 tons of coal per day, generating about 51,000 horsepower. Titanic burned 1.5 kilograms of coal for every meter traveled—therefore a 30-kg lump of coal could move the Ship through the water about 20 meters, or about 1.5 seconds at full speed.

22

Boiler Rooms
Titanic’s hardest work was done in her boiler rooms. Deep in the bowels of the Ship, 157 coal-fired furnaces heated Titanic’s 29 boilers. Once heated, the boilers created enough steam to turn the Ship’s propellers and drive Titanic through the sea. The boilers also provided the steam needed to turn Titanic’s electricity generating turbines. The men of the Ship’s boiler rooms—known as the ‘Black Gang” due to the sooty nature of their work—were the true engines that powered Titanic. In a constant cycle, they carted and shoveled 6,500 tons of coal each day, stoking the furnaces and regulating the boilers. Their task was vital, their labor invisible, their work an endless cycle.

23

TOUCH THE ICEBERG

On the night of April 14, 1912, the waters of the North Atlantic were below freezing, registering close to 28 degrees Fahrenheit. Because salt water freezes at a lower temperature than freshwater, the saltwater ocean was colder that night than the freshwater iceberg before you. As a result, most of those lost during Titanic’s sinking did not die from drowning. They died from hypothermia—a rapid mental and physical collapse that accompanies the lowering of body temperature.

24

As passengers board the lifeboats, Titanic’s Chief Purser, Herbert McElroy, musters the Ship’s orchestra on the Boat Deck, ordering them to play in order to maintain calm. As each boat is loaded and launched, the eight musicians play lively tunes. Like the waiters in the à la carte restaurant, Titanic’s bandsmen are in an odd position: as private contractors they are not called upon as crew to man the lifeboats, nor as passengers to escape.

Instead, they play on. After the lifeboats are gone, Orchestra leader Wallace Hartley lifts his bow for a final tune. Perhaps he plays “Nearer, My God, to Thee,” the song he wanted played at his funeral.

None of the Titanic’s musicians will survive.

ISMAY
After aiding other passengers into the lifeboats, the Director of White Star Line, Bruce Ismay, steps into Collapsible C. It is the last boat launched on the starboard side. Over 1,500 passengers remain on the Ship.

BECKER
Ruth Becker, age 12, is separated from her mother and two siblings in the loading of the lifeboats. Seeing Ruth still on the deck, her mother Nellie Becker screams, “Ruth! Get in another boat!” Ruth is put into Lifeboat 13.

BROWN
Margaret Brown takes charge of Lifeboat 6, wresting control away from the unstable Quartermaster Robert Hichens and encouraging women in her boat to row with her. Later, during the long and freezing night, Margaret will keep her companions’ spirits up with stories and song.

STRAUSS
Ida Straus, wife of Macy’s Department Store owner Isidor Straus, stops as she is about to board Lifeboat 8. Mrs. Straus
refuses to leave her husband, saying, “I will not be separated from my husband. As we have lived, so we will die: together.”

25

The original design for Titanic called for the Ship to carry 32 lifeboats—enough to accommodate about 1,900 passengers in the event of an emergency. The number was later reduced to 20 both to cut costs and because it was felt that the deck would become too cluttered with 32 lifeboats. The amount exceeded the number of lifeboats required by the existing regulations at the time—the 20 lifeboats had a maximum capacity of 1,178 people, surpassing the required capacity of 1,060 people.

One of the great tragedies of the Ship’s disaster is that only two of the lifeboats that launched from Titanic were filled to capacity—all the others carried fewer than they could have, some by a wide margin, including Lifeboat 7 which launched with just 19 of the possible 65 people on board. This is partly due to the reluctance of passengers to leave the “practically unsinkable” Titanic shortly after the Ship struck the iceberg —the first seven lifeboats to launch carried a mere 160 people out of a possible 430.

26

The Submersibles

The incredible pressures where the wreck of the RMS Titanic lies (2.5 miles beneath the ocean surface) require specialized deep-sea vessels known as “submersibles.” To withstand the tremendous water pressure at this depth (6,000 psi), the Nautile’s crew sphere is constructed of one-foot-thick rolled titanium and is seven feet in diameter.
A pilot, co-pilot, and an observer fit into this tiny space, and each has a thick plastic window for viewing the depths. A dive to Titanic lasts between 12 and 15 hours, including a 2.5 hour descent and return. The submersible descends in total darkness, turning on its searchlights only after touching the ocean floor. The pilot and co-pilot then turn on the engines to explore the wreck site. The submersible does not enter the hull of the Ship, but uses a remote operated vehicle (ROV) to see within the remains of Titanic.

During manned recovery missions, the crew uses the submersible’s robotic arms to collect artifacts from the debris field surrounding the Ship. Automated “hands” at the ends of the arms pick up sturdy objects, while suction is used to gather more delicate ones. Collected artifacts are either placed in a basket on the front of the submersible or into a larger crate. Once the recovery mission is complete, the precious cargo is carried to the surface where conservators and collections managers
await its arrival.

27

Rusticles

Initial dives to Titanic revealed that large amounts of bacteria and fungi had formed on the Ship that resembled icicles of rust—these were subsequently referred to as “rusticles.” According to Dr. Roy Cullimore of the University of Regina, rusticles are solid—though extremely porous—masses of bacterial and fungi colonies that are interwoven with solids that drift down from the surface of the ocean as well as sand and corrosion products from the Ship’s hull.

The presence of these rusticles have led some to assume that these organisms are contributing to the corrosion of Titanic—that they are, in fact, “eating” away the Ship—because the rusticles use iron for respiration (similar to the way humans use oxygen) to convert food into energy. Others have disputed this theory, positing an alternative scenario whereby the rust is flaking off the Ship due to chemical, rather than biological, processes, and that the rusticles have formed simply because this bounty of food has been provided by the rusting Ship.

That the rusticles are using the corroding iron from the Ship to live and multiply is not disputed—only whether the rusticles are indeed “eating” away at Titanic or simply feeding off what the Ship would naturally provide through electrochemical processes is the point of contention. Dr. Cullimore is continuing his research into the specific ways in which rusticles are affecting Titanic, and hopefully a definitive answer to the question will be provided in the near future.

28

Conserving the Artifacts

The goal of RMS Titanic, Inc.’s artifact conservation program is to stop deterioration while allowing recovered objects to be exhibited wearing the trauma they have experienced during their decades on the ocean floor.

Before the recovery of Titanic’s artifacts, there was little expertise in conserving materials retrieved from such great depths. The Ship’s artifacts have not only been subjected to an inhospitable environment with little oxygen and no light, but also to pressures greater than 6,000 pounds per square inch.

Immediately upon retrieval, each object is stabilized to prevent further degradation due to its sudden change of environment. In the initial stabilization at sea, conservators photograph, measure, and assess the condition of each artifact. They then enter this information into a database and assign each artifact an identifying accession number, which you may have noticed on the artifact labels throughout this Exhibition. Finally, the artifacts are placed in bins lined with moist foam and tagged for secure transit to conservation laboratories on land.

Titanic’s artifacts are comprised of a vast array of materials and, once on land, require a team of conservationists that specialize in papers, textiles, woods, metals, ceramics, and leathers. All conservation techniques are artifact specific, but desalination, drying, protection, and maintenance are employed while conserving most materials in the collection.

Sadly, there are no conservation techniques to preserve the Ship itself, which is slowly being consumed by iron-eating microbes. Scientists predict this process will cause Titanic to implode and collapse on itself in 40 to 90 years time. However, Titanic’s recovered artifacts will remain long after the Ship is gone as a reminder of the legendary liner, life’s fragility, and the human spirit’s enduring strength.

29

How We Did It

Expedition Titanic 2010 produced an enormous amount of data that was captured using two types of deep water vehicles: a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) and two Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs). These highly sophisticated, unmanned vehicles are fitted with specialized equipment designed to operate at extreme depths beneath the ocean’s surface.

The ROV was outfitted with a high-intensity lighting array and six separate cameras, including high definition, 3D, and still photography cameras. Controlled by an operator onboard a research vessel located on the surface of the Atlantic, the ROV captured the most high-resolution images of the Ship ever recorded. The two AUVs moved in a coordinated grid pattern over the Ship’s three-square mile wreck site and surrounding debris field. The AUVs used sonar technology to create an acoustic map of every object around the wreck, as well as the bow and stern sections of the Ship—this data will allow researchers to identify every remaining piece of Titanic, as well as the scattered belongings of Titanic’s passengers and crew.

Once the recorded data is assembled, the scientific community and the public will have the first complete picture of Titanic, an important research tool that will help determine the site’s current condition as well as plans to monitor and maintain the wreck site, helping preserve Titanic’s legacy for generations. The work done during Expedition Titanic 2010 has changed the way that future expeditions to any part of the ocean will conduct their research, transforming oceanographic exploration forever.

The Mission

In August 2010, RMS Titanic, Inc., (RMST) salvor-in-possession of Titanic and its wreck site, gathered many of the world’s leading scientists, oceanographers, and archeologists to undertake an ambitious and technologically advanced journey to the Ship’s final resting place 2.5 miles below the surface of the Atlantic. Utilizing underwater vehicles capable of withstanding the harsh deep-ocean environment, the expedition team was able to record high definition and 3DHD video of the Ship that will allow scientists to study details of Titanic in a way never before possible. The goals of the expedition, performed by RMST in partnership with Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and the Waitt Institute, were varied and far-reaching—the many scientific missions undertaken at the wreck site included:

• Employing revolutionary acoustic imaging, sonar technologies, and high resolution optical, video, and 3-D imaging to provide the first comprehensive view of the entire wreck site, allowing RMST to digitally preserve Titanic and the wreck site for future generations.

• Establishing the perimeter of the archaeological site as well as information on the deterioration of the Ship and its effects on the surrounding seabed.

• Identifying new artifacts in the scattered debris field which may offer clues to Titanic’s final moments while also utilizing geographic information system coordinates (GIS) as guideposts for future recovery missions.

• In addition, analysis of the critical information gathered at the wreck site will inform development of standards in underwater archaeology for maritime heritage site management, a key element in RMST’s mission to faithfully and respectfully preserve the legacy and memory of Titanic and her passengers and crew for future generations.

30

The Group of Nine

The nine-man Harland & Wolff Guarantee Group was an elite assembly of men that accompanied Titanic on her maiden voyage. Membership in the Group was highly select, and based not only on a man’s abilities but also on his enthusiasm for his work, and to be chosen for the Group was considered a great honour—especially for an apprentice—and indication of the firm’s respect for one’s work. Their duties included completing any work left unfinished when the Ship set sail as well as tending to any problems that may occur on the trip to New York. The Group was led by the Managing Director of Harland & Wolff, Thomas Andrews. Many of the men were Irish by birth, and all resided in Belfast. Just as the Ship’s engineers did when the Ship began to founder, the Group of Nine also struggled mightily to keep Titanic afloat—and sadly, like the engineers, none of them survived. The Group of Nine was made up of:

Thomas Andrews, Managing Director
William Campbell, Apprentice Joiner
Roderick Chisholm, Chief Draftsman
Alfred Cunningham, Apprentice Fitter
Anthony Frost, Foreman Fitter
Robert Knight, Leading Hand Fitter
Francis Parkes, Apprentice Plumber
Henry Parr, Electrical Department Assistant Manager
Ennis Watson, Apprentice Electrician

31

Following a successful business trip to Europe, Asia, India, and Africa, Mr. George Rosenshine, 45, boarded Titanic at Cherbourg. Returning with 12 cases of ostrich feathers for his family’s import company, Rosenshine traveled under an assumed name. He used the name “George Thorne” when buying his first-class ticket, matching the last name of his traveling companion and mistress, Maybelle Thorne. Miss Thorne boarded Collapsible D and survived Titanic’s sinking, but Mr. Rosenshine perished. His body, dressed in a fine black suit and dark grey overcoat, was the 16th to be recovered by the cable ship MacKay Bennett. The papers on display in the adjoining case, as well as the many others found among his belongings, were recovered during Expedition 1987.

32

Mrs Marion Meanwell’s life was forever changed by the coal strike of 1912.

A 63-year-old British passenger travelling in second-class, Marion Meanwell was immigrating to America aboard the Titanic. An insurance certificate found in her luggage indicated that she planned to reside at 100 Lexington Avenue in New York.

Mrs Meanwell expected to make the transatlantic voyage to New York aboard the steamer Majestic. However, due to the coal strike, the Majestic was delayed in Southampton and Mrs Meanwell was transferred to the Titanic. An inspection card found tucked inside her alligator handbag has the word ‘Majestic’ crossed out and ‘Titanic’ written in its place.

Tragically, Mrs Marion Meanwell did not survive the disaster.

33

Belongings of Adolphe Saafeld: Adolphe Saalfeld was a perfume maker from Manchester, England. At the age of 47, he boarded Titanic as a first-class passenger. He carried with him a leather satchel filled with perfume samples. At the time Titanic sailed, the American perfume market was booming and Saalfeld may have planned to sell his fragrances to department stores in New York and other major cities. Saalfeld survived the sinking but left his perfumes behind. Of the 65 vials packed in his luggage, 62 were recovered from the ocean floor along with the Swiss-made leather case in which they were transported.

34

Franz Pulbaum, a machinist, was traveling to New York from Paris. He boarded Titanic at Cherbourg, leaving his mother and younger brother behind in his native Germany. His 21-year-old brother, who lived in the United States, provided Franz with the money for his ticket.

Pulbaum, 27, planned to study engineering in America and to become a United States citizen. He carried with him a signed “Declaration of Intention” stating his desire to live permanently in the United States.

Pulbaum may have intended to use the simple tools, found in 1993 among his belongings in a steamer trunk, to earn a living wage while in school. A German-to-English dictionary, also recovered from the trunk, would have proved invaluable in learning the language of his adopted country.

Franz Pulbaum perished in the disaster.

35

Second-class passenger Edgar Samuel Andrew was born in Argentina in 1895, the son of English parents. While studying in England in 1912, he was invited to attend his brother’s wedding in the United States. Edgar was originally booked to travel to New York on the steamship Oceanic, but because of a coal strike, he was forced to rebook passage aboard the Titanic. This change of plan forced him to leave earlier than he would have liked.

In a letter to Josey Cowen, his friend from Argentina who was planning to visit Edgar in England, Andrew wrote the following:

‘You figure Josey, I had to leave on the 17th aboard the Oceanic, but due to the coal strike, that steamer cannot depart, so I have to go one week earlier onboard the Titanic. It really seems unbelievable that I have to leave a few days before your arrival, but there’s no help for it, I’ve got to go. You figure, Josey, I am, boarding the greatest steamship in the world, but I don’t really feel proud of it at all, right now I wish the Titanic were lying at the bottom of the ocean’.

Edgar Samuel Andrew died in the sinking.

36

A consummate adventurer, Howard Irwin booked passage aboard Titanic as the final leg of a world tour. The day before he was to sail, he packed his steamer trunk with his leather-working tools, musical instruments, and mementoes from two years of travel. Irwin, however, never boarded Titanic.

The night before Titanic’s departure, Irwin was shanghaied, kidnapped and forced into labor aboard a steamer bound for the Far East. However, his best friend and traveling companion, Henry Sutehall Jr., did board Titanic. Unaware of Irwin’s fate, Sutehall carried his friend’s belongings on board expecting Irwin, as usual, to arrive at the last moment. Henry Sutehall and Titanic left Southampton without Howard Irwin.

Irwin eventually escaped his captors in Egypt and traveled back to Buffalo, New York. Irwin’s possessions were recovered from Titanic’s wreck site in 1993. His friend Henry Sutehall was lost when Titanic sank.

37

Hearings

Investigative hearings into Titanic’s tragedy were held in the United States and Great Britain. These hearings led to new laws and regulations designed to prevent future maritime disasters. All ships crossing the North Atlantic were equipped with searchlights and required to take a more southerly route. A special radio frequency was established exclusively for ships at sea and 24-hour radio watches became mandatory for ships carrying 50 or more passengers. All ships were compelled to have enough lifeboats for everyone on board and required to conduct regular lifeboat drills. In 1914, the International Ice Patrol was formed. Since that time, no lives have been lost in monitored areas due to collisions with icebergs.

38

Titanic Relief Fund

Immediately following Titanic’s disaster, efforts began both in Great Britain and the United States to establish a relief fund to assist survivors and families of lost passengers and crew.

One such fund, known as the London Lord Mayor’s Fund, received donations from metropolitan newspapers in the form of cash deposits, made to boxes strategically placed throughout the city. Additional funds were generously donated by cities throughout the United Kingdom. In the United States, the Mayor’s Fund under sponsorship of then New York Mayor William Gaynor, received funds from all across the country.